.

Leif Erikson Statue at Minnesota State Capitol

.

900

982 Discovery of Greenland by Norwegian colonists from Iceland.

983 According to the Landnamabok, Icelander Are Marsson is driven by storms to Hvitrammanaland or White Men’s Land, identified by some as a place in North America, as it was located near Vinland.

986-1003 Two Norwegians, Bjarni Herjolfsson and Leif Erikson, reach Vinland in America, on separate voyages, the former from Iceland and the latter from Greenland. Colonization of Vinland fails, but research indicates that the Viking explorers may have penetrated the Americas as far west as Minnesota (see entry 1355). (For less known facts, see my essay Ingeborg, A Viking Girl on the Blue Lagoon here.)

999 According to the Sagas, Icelandic Viking Bjorn Asbrandsson spends thirty years in the Hvitramannaland or White Men’s Land near Vinland, as chief of a native tribe.

1000

1010 Icelander Thorfinn Karlsefni, married in Greenland to Gudrid Thorbjarnadottir, follows the tracks of Leif Erikson to make a new settlement in Vinland.

1013 Snorri, son of Gudrid (wife of Thorfinn Karlsefni), is the first white child born in North America. (The memorial statue of Gudrid in Glaumbær, Iceland, has the inscription “The first white mother in America.”)

1029 According to the Sagas, Gudleif Gudlaugson, stranded in the vicinity of Vinland while sailing from Dublin, Ireland, to Iceland, was saved from skrælings’ hostility by a white man, later identified, from the items he gave Gudleif, as Bjorn the Breidavik-Champion, who had been exiled from Iceland thirty years before, that is, Bjorn Asbransson (see 999).

1064 Jonus, a Saxon bishop, reaches Vinland via Iceland as a Christian missionary. Vinlanders put him to death, which hints at paganism (Odinism) regaining ground in Vinland.

1075 (or sometime between 1072 and 1076) First known written mention of Vinland, in Adam of Bremen’s Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae Pontificum (Deeds of the Hamburg Church’s Bishops). Adam was told about Vinland by the King of Denmark Svend II Estridsson.

1100

1121 Erik Gnupsson, bishop of Greenland, travels to Vinland and, according to Danish historian Claus C. Lyschander in De Grønlandske Cronica (The Greenlandic Chronicle) of 1608, sets up a colony there and converts natives. According to C.C. Rafn (see 1837), he remained in Vinland, resigning from his former seat with a formal letter that reached Greenland in 1122.

1200

1266 Three priests from the Gardar bishopric of Greenland sail to Barrow Strait and Wellington Channel in today’s Canada (Nunavut).

1279 The Holy See sends a cleric collect the dime in Greenland “and the surrounding islands and lands,” that is, Vinland. “In 1418 Greenland was still paying 2,600 pounds of walrus teeth annually for the dime and Peter’s pence” (Gabriel Gravier, Découverte de l’Amérique par les Normands au X^e siècle [The Discovery of America by the Normans in the 10^th century], 1874). At this date (1418), the colony of Greenland was devastated; some, like Gravier, believe it was by Henry Sinclair’s float (see 1398), and by Scandinavian pirates called Victualie Brœdre. The colony had already declined by that time, due to climate change, Inuit raids, and the black plague of the 14^th century; nevertheless, Gravier presents a list of Greenlandic bishops from 1121 to 1537 (with nominations in 1450, 1487, 1537, the seals of said bishops were found and archived).

1285 Brothers Adalbrand and Thorvald Helgason, both priests, fleeing from Norway find a land they call Fundu-Nyialand, which is Newfoundland in Canada.

1300

1347 Last expedition from America mentioned in the Sagas: A vessel from Markland, north of Vinland, came to Iceland with a cargo of wood.

1355 On the orders of the King of Norway, Paul Knudson travels to Greenland, where he finds the colony abandoned. Looking for the Greenlanders on the western side, or Vinland, he is believed by some to have journeyed deep into North America and left the Kensington Rune-Stone in Minnesota, in 1362. [Note that Greenland been empty before 1360 is inconsistent with Gravier’s assertions above, and perhaps little consistent with a last expedition recorded in 1347 because then the complete abandonment of the Norse settlements in Greenland and the American continent would have been achieved in only a few years.]

1398 Henry Sinclair, earl of Orkney, is believed to have landed in Nova Scotia, Canada. He was a descendant of Seynt Cler or Clere, who accompanied William the Conqueror in England, where William became the first Norman king of the country. A monument to Sinclair’s landing was inaugured in 1996 in Halfway Cove, Guysborough, Nova Scotia.

1400

1473 German corsairs Didrik Pining and Hans Pothorst, licensed by King Christian I of Denmark to sail to Greenland, may have reached Newfoundland and Labrador in Canada. Pilot of the expedition was John Scolvus or Skolv, Skolp: “the term Skolp has been applied to the inhabitants of certain sections in Northern Norway” (Dr. Sofus Larsen, “Danmark og Portugal i det 15de Aarhundrede” [Denmark and Portugal in the fifteenth c.], 1920, quoted by Laurence M. Larson in The American-Scandinavian Review, 1922).

1477 According to his autobiography, completed by the writings of his son Ferdinand, Christopher Columbus visits Iceland. Some historians question these writings, because they have not found them confirmed by other documents. In Iceland, Columbus certainly heard about Greenland and Vinland (if he had not heard or read about them in other places before).

1488 Jean Cousin, a navigator from Dieppe in Normandy, that is, a descendant of the Normans established in this part of France under King Rollo in 911, is believed to have reached Brazil and come back. One of his captains was Martin Alonso Pinzon, who traveled with Columbus a few years later, in 1492.

1500

1504 Binot Paulmier de Gonneville, from Honfleur in Normandy (see 1488), is the first European to reach the Southern parts of Brazil. He came back to France with the son of a Tupi chief, a certain Essemeric, who settled in Normandy as Paulmier’s heir. Essemeric’s descendants were exempted from the “droit d’aubaine” (feudal tax on foreigners) by Louis XIV in the seventeenth century.

1522 Corsair Jean Fleury, from Normandy (see 1488), attacks near the Azores three Spanish vessels transporting the treasure of the last Aztec emperor. The Aztec treasure landed in Normandy. This is the first known attack against Spanish vessels en route to Spain from the New World.

1600

1619 “The first Danes who ever spent New Year’s Eve in the New World were doubtless Captain Jens Munk and his merry men, who, seeking the Northwest Passage to Cathay, found themselves instead icebound in “Nova Dania,” as they called the west coast of Hudson Bay, in the Year of Our Lord 1619. Remember, this was a year before the stern Pilgrim Fathers celebrated their first New Year at Plymouth.” (Bering Liisberg, “Christian IV and the Northwest Passage,” The American-Scandinavian Review, 1921)

1630 Scandinavian settlers come with Dutch settlers in the bay of New Amsterdam.

1638 Fort Christina, first Swedish colony (New Sweden/Nya Sverige). (On New Sweden, see Amandus Johnson’s authoritative work The Swedish Settlements on the Delaware 1638-1664, 2 vol. 1911-14, 1927)

1638 The first log cabin in America is erected by Swedes.

1639 Jonas Bronck, a Scandinavian immigrant of disputed origin (Faroe Islands, or Denmark, or Sweden), married with a Dutch woman and settled in New Netherland, is the first to colonize the area that now bears his name, the Bronx in NYC, as does the Bronx River (Bronck’s river).

1647 French Calvinist Isaac de La Peyrère, after a sojourn in Denmark, publishes a history of Greenland, La relation du Groenland, which will be defining for the European perception of this territory for decades. Describing it as having fertile soil, he fails however to mention Vinland.

1655 After a battle at Fort Christina, during which the Dutch troops were led by Peter Stuyvesant, New Sweden becomes part of New Netherland. Later, in 1664, the Dutch New Amsterdam is conquered by an English fleet.

1681 William Penn buys the land for his colony of Pennsylvania from Swedish settlers.

1696 New Sweden pastor John Campanius (1601-1683)’s translation of Luther’s Small Catechism in Delaware-Lenape language is printed in Stockholm: Lutheri Catechismus öfwersatt på amerikansk-virginiske språket.

1700

1705 Thormodus Torfæus, royal historian of the Kingdom of Denmark-Norway, writes Historia Vinlandiæ Antiquæ (History of Ancient Vinland).

1721 Missionary Hans Egede, “the Apostle of Greenland,” founds the second Scandinavian settlement in Greenland, restoring Denmark’s broken relationship with this territory.

1721 Swedish-born painter Gustavus Hesselius receives the first recorded public art commission in the American colonies, The Last Supper, for St. Barnabas Church in Maryland.

1728 Vitus Bering, Danish-born explorer leading a Russian fleet, enters the Strait that today bears his name, the Bering Strait between the Russian Far East and Alaska.

1739 Gustavus Vasa, or The Deliverer of His Country, a tragedy on the King of Sweden by Irish playwright Henry Brooke: “Brooke’s play found considerable favor in America during the latter part of the eighteenth’s century, and became a kind of battle-play of the American Revolution.” (Adolph B. Benson, “Was ‘Gustavus Wasa’ the First American Drama?”, Scandinavian Studies and Notes, Aug. 1921).

1749 Peter Kalm, of the Swedish Royal Academy of Sciences, is told by French explorer La Vérendrye about a stone discovered by the latter in what is today North Dakota. The stone was engraved with signs which some Jesuits found similar to the Tatarian script copied in one book of their library in Quebec. According to Hjalmar R. Holand, it could be a runic stone, as Tatarian script looks alike Scandinavian runes. Its whereabouts in France are unknown. (H.R. Holand, Norse Discoveries & Explorations in America 982-1362, 1940) “The Minnesota Historical Society has offered a $1000 reward for the stone’s rediscovery.” (Wkpd: Vérendrye Stone)

1769 Foundation in Philadelphia of a Society of Scandinavians, as a socio-cultural organization.

1776 John Morton, of Delaware, descendant of Swedish settlers, casts the deciding vote in favor of the Declaration of Independence.

1780 Swedish count Axel von Fersen is named general Rochambeau’s aide-de-camp in the French expeditionary corps fighting for American independence. He was awarded the Order of Cincinnatus by George Washington. (As Earl Marshal of Sweden, he was massacred by a mob in 1810 during the events that brought the Bernadotte dynasty of French and Napoleonian origin on the Swedish throne.) (See Count Hans Axel von Fersen: Aristocrat in an Age of Revolution, 1975, by Swedish-American historian Hildor Arnold Barton.)

1781-82 John Hanson, descendant of the earliest Swedish settlers, serves as the first “President of the U.S. in Congress Assembled,” before George Washington is elected President of a new U.S. government. Thus, he was chief executive of the nation during its first year.

1782 With Sweden the United States signs its first unsolicited treaty as a new republic. It was its third treaty; the first two, with France and the Netherlands, “were the result of earnest solicitation.” (See Adolph Burnett Benson, “Our First Unsolicited Treaty,” The American-Scandinavian Review, 1919: “Sweden was the first power in Europe which had voluntarily offered its friendship to the United States without being solicited.” [Benjamin Franklin])

1800

1801-05 First Barbary War, in which the U.S. and Sweden together fought against the Barbary States of North Africa to stop piracy in the Mediterranean Sea. (There was a Second Barbary War, also known as the US-Algerian War, in 1815.)

1810

1817 The Swedenborgian Church of North America (General Convention of the Church of the New Jerusalem) is established in Philadelphia.

1820

1824 Finding in northwestern Greenland of the Kingittorsuaq Runestone, dated 1135 by one estimate. It is now located at the National Museum of Denmark in Copenhagen. Other runic artefacts from Greenland include the runestone from Brattahlid, the runestone from Gardar, the wooden stick from Hjerolfsnes churchyard, the (lost) Høne runestone, the Narsaq inscription.

1826-1910 Norway gave to America a larger proportion of her people than any other nation, except Ireland, during the great Atlantic migrations.

1830

1837 Danish historian Carl Christian Rafn publishes Antiquitates americanæ, sive Scriptores septentrionales rerum antecolombianarum in America, opera et studio (American Antiquities, or the writings of Nordic authors on pre-Columbian matters in America: Their works and an examination of them), a collection of early sources on pre-Columbian Nordic travels and settlements. In this work, Rafn claims for instance that the inscriptions on the Dighton Rock, Massachusetts, are of Viking origin.

1840

1840 Swedish Immigration Law of 1768 restricting the right of emigration is repealed by the Parliament of Sweden as an answer to the problem of pauperism.

1843 The first Norwegian Lutheran minister is ordained in America: Elling Eielsen, belonging to the pietistic Haugean movement, opposed to the state church in Norway.

1843 Mr. Richter, of Otsego (State of New York), sees in the ruins of Aztalan, Wisconsin, an ancient, pre-Colombian Scandinavian site: in Mémoires de la Société royale des Antiquaires du Nord 1840-1843 pp. 8, 9 (quoted by G. Gravier, op. cit., p. 229. Aztalan written Uzteilan).

1844 A Dr. Schuck (Instituto Histórico Brasileiro?) hypothesizes that the pre-Colombian city of the Bahia province in Brazil was built by Normans from Greenland-Vinland: in Mémoires de la Société royale des Antiquaires du Nord 1840-1843 pp. 26-7, 1844 p. 180 (quoted by Gravier, op. cit., p. 235).

1846 Eric Jansson, or Janson, leader of the Swedish pietistic sect known as the Jansonites, builds Bishop Hill Colony in Illinois, a communal society that was to last until 1870. Swedish-American naïve painter Olof Krans grew up in the colony.

1847 The first Scandinavian newspaper in the U.S., Scandinavia, is published in New York City.

1848 Creation of the first Bygdelag, or “District League,” Norwegian-American organization with social and cultural purposes.

1848 Danish pioneer Peter Lassen leads a party through the Sierra Nevada to northern California, blazing a new route past the mountain that now bears his name: Lassen Peak.

1850

1850 Beginning of Danish Mormons’ emigration to Utah. (Danes are the major European component of the Mormons. See William Muller’s Homeward to Zion: The Mormon migration from Scandinavia, 1957.)

1850 Swedenborgians found a denominational liberal arts college, Urbana College in Urbana, Ohio, which became Urbana University in 1985.

1851 First Scandinavian political organization, the Swedish-American Republican Club of Illinois.

1852 Norwegian virtuoso violinist and composer Ole Bull buys land in Pennsylvania to start a utopian farming community, New Norway. It is a failure. The location is today Ole Bull State Park, in Stewardson Township.

1854 Scandinavians, as a group, begin to transfer their political allegiance from the Democratic to the Republican Party. The process was completed by 1860.

1856 Scandinavians largely oppose the American (Know-Nothing) Party in favor of immigration restriction and longer residence requirements for citizenship. (See entry 1886i for a shift in opinion.)

1857-1859 In his four-volume Histoire des nations civilisées du Mexique et de l’Amérique centrale durant les siècles antérieurs à Christophe Colomb (History of the civilized nations of Mexico and Central America in the centuries before Columbus), French Catholic priest Brasseur de Bourbourg, translator of the Popol Vuh, explains that the Toltecs of Mexico were “Thuletecs,” that is, Scandinavian Norsemen.

1860

1862 Foundation of Gustavus Adolphus College in St. Peter, Minnesota, by Swedish immigrants. (Since 1965 the annual Nobel Conference takes place at Gustavus.)

1862 Norwegian-American colonel Hans Christian Heg forms the 15^th Wisconsin Infantry Regiment of the Union during the American Civil War. The regiment was known as the “Scandinavian Regiment,” because its soldiers were almost all immigrants from Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. Heg’s statue by Paul Fjelde (born to Norwegian parents) stands at the Wisconsin State Capitol building in Madison.

1864-1867 The Great Famine in Sweden leads to an exodus to America.

1870

1872 Icelander Jon Olafsson leads a movement for the exploration of Alaska as a settlement site for Icelanders. The resulting bill is not passed. Icelanders create a New Iceland colony near Lake Winnipeg, on land granted by the government of Canada; the colony is named Gimli after the paradise of Norse legends.

1872 Foundation of the first Laestadian congregation in America, at Cokato, Minnesota. Laestadianism, named after Swedish preacher Lars Levi Laestadius (1800-1861), is the largest Lutheran pietistic revival movement in the Nordic countries.

1874 America Not Discovered by Columbus, by Norwegian-American Asmus Bjørn Anderson, originator of Leif Erikson Day.

1874 Gunnar: A Tale of Norse Life, by Hjalmar Hjorth Boyesen, the first novel by a Norwegian immigrant in America.

1874 Foundation of St. Olaf College in Northfield, Minnesota, by Norwegian-American immigrants.

1874 French historian Gabriel Gravier publishes Découverte de l’Amérique par les Normands au X^e siècle (Discovery of America by the Normans in the tenth century AD), in which he contends that the “Normans” of Greenland-Vinland found their way into the whole American continent. He explains that the tumuli of the Mississippi valley (Cahokia) and Florida, those of Guatemala (Rabinal), and the Aztec pyramids are based on the model of Scandinavian tumuli.

1874 Norwegian-born Oliver Olson founds in Chicago the one-man Olson Rug Company, with a concept, the “Olson fluff rug,” “a hand-weaved product made from older, repurposed fabric.” The company will become a major manufacturer of rugs and carpets. Walter Olson, Oliver’s son and successor, built the Olson Park and Waterfall, a popular landmark in Chicago (closed in 1971).

1876 Foundation by Danish immigrant Niels Poulsen and Norwegian immigrant Charles Eger of Poulsen & Eger in NYC, later Hecla Iron Works, which, among other things, “supplied the 133 original kiosks for the IRT subway system.” In 1911 Niels Poulsen founded the American-Scandinavian Foundation (ASF), active to this day.

1876 Outlines of the Religion and Philosophy of Swedenborg, by Theophilus Parsons, professor of law at Harvard, and a convert to Swedenborgianism. He was the son of jurist Theophilus Parsons, delegate to the Massachusetts convention that ratified the federal constitution in 1788.

1877 Swedenborgians found in Bryn Athyn, Pennsylvania, the Academy of the New Church, now Bryn Athyn College.

1877 Foundation of the Norwegian-American Historical Museum (now Vesterheim Norwegian-American Museum) in Decorah, Iowa. Decorah is nicknamed the “Norwegian capital” of the state.

1880

1880 French historian Eugène Beauvois publishes La Norambègue : Découverte d’une quatrième colonie précolombienne dans le Nouveau Monde (Norumbega: Discovery of a fourth pre-Columbian [Viking] colony in the New World), in which among other things he derives the Gougou myth of Souriquois Micmac Indians described by Champlain from the Scandinavian troll-woman or ogress Gýgr (or Gýgur).

1882 Swedish-born William Matson founds Matson Navigation Company, a shipping and navigation services company. He developed the cruise line business and introduced tourism to Hawaii.

1883 The first prima donna of the New York Metropolitan Opera is a Swedish woman: Christina Nilsson.

1883 Swedish immigrant Frank Ofeldt patents the “naphta launch,” the world’s first successful motorboat. See The Naphta Revolution: The Untold Story of an Invention That Changed the World, 2002, by Graeme Ferguson.

1884 Foundation of Dana College in Blair, Nebraska, by Danish immigrants (1884-2010).

1884 The Co-operative Commonwealth in Its Outlines: An Exposition of Modern Socialism, a milestone of Socialist thinking in America, by Danish-born Laurence Gronlund.

1886 Many Scandinavians join nativist associations in opposition to the emigration of new people from Southern and Eastern Europe.

1886 Due to agrarian distress in the Midwest, thousands of Scandinavians leave the Republican Party and join the Farmers’ Alliance, which will later become part of the Populist Party.

1887 The first statue of Leif Erikson in America, “Leif the Discoverer” by Anne Whitley, is unveiled on the Commonwealth Avenue Mall in Boston, MA.

1887 Foundation in California of The Buddhist Ray, first Buddhist journal in the U.S., by Swedish-born Herman Vetterling, a Buddhist convert. Vetterling’s best-known work is Swedenborg the Buddhist, or The Higher Swedenborgianism: Its Secrets and Thibetan Origin, 1887 (under pseudonym Philangi Dasa).

1888 Publication of the Norwegian-American newspaper Normanden is started in Grand Forks, North Dakota; headed by writer Hans Andersen Foss, it expresses the Populist sympathies of the Scandinavian farmers (1888-1993). (More on H. A. Foss: see Prohibitions-Mystik here.)

1889 American scientist (chemistry) Eben Norton Horsford has the Norumbega Tower erected in Weston, MA, to mark the location of Fort Norumbega, an alleged pre-Columbian Norse settlement (see at 1880). See also his book The Discovery of the Ancient City of Norumbega, 1890.

1889 Commercialization by Westinghouse of the first automatic storage water heater, developed by Norwegian-born engineer Edwin Ruud. In 1897 Ruud founds his own company, Ruud, now Rheem (keeping the name Ruud as a brand).

1890

1890 Jacob A. Riis, probably the best-known Danish-American intellectual, publishes How the Other Half Lives, an influential appeal to social conscience. He later published, among other things, his memoirs under the title The Making of an American, 1901.

1890 Scandinavians in the Midwest are instrumental in getting Farmers’ Alliance’s candidates elected to the House of Representatives.

1890 Publication of Svensk-amerikanska poeter i ord och bild (Swedish-American Poets in Words and Pictures; an anthology) by Ernst Skarstedt, Svenska folkets tidnings förlag, Minneapolis, MN. (For my French translations of a few of these poems, and a poem in the original text by Herman Stockenström, see here.) (Swedish-American historian Emory Lindquist, president of Bethany College and Wichita State University, wrote Skarstedt’s biography, An Immigrant’s American Odyssey: A Biography of Ernst Skarstedt [1970].)

1891 In reply to a questionnaire sent to governors of states by the Immigration Restriction League, 12 state governments express a desire for immigrants of Scandinavian background (for these are perceived as “hard-working, God-fearing, and non-radical”).

1893 Oscar Eliason, “the Mormon Wizard,” born to Swedish parents in Utah, reproduces the supposed feats of medium Anna Eva Fay. Eliason gained great popularity by challenging “spiritualism” and mediums.

1894 Swedish immigrants Alfred Stromberg and Androv Carlson found telecommunications company Stromberg-Carlson in Chicago, “one of five companies that controlled the national supply of telephone equipment until after WWII” (Wkpd).

1894 “Give me Swedes, snuff and whiskey, and I’ll build a railroad through hell.” (James J. Hill, of the Great Northern Railroad)

1894 The John Ericsson Republican League of Illinois is founded. “Its mission was to exert a Scandinavian-American influence on American politics and advance Scandinavian-Americans for political office. … (The league was named after) Captain John Ericsson, Swedish-American engineer and inventor best known for his creation of the Union ironclad warship U.S.S. Monitor, which defeated the Confederate ironclad warship U.S.S. Merrimac in a naval battle on March 9, 1862. This battle was instrumental in securing a Union victory in the Civil War.” (augustana.edu)

1894 Many Scandinavian-Americans join the American Protective Association, a nativist anti-Catholic organization.

1894 Numerous victories of the Populist Party, especially in Scandinavian populated states: North and South Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin.

1895 Creation of the Sons of Norway, the largest Norwegian secular organization in America.

1897 In Yukon Charley Anderson becomes “Lucky Swede”: “A Swede named Charley Anderson had been at work on Miller Creek the year of the strike, and arrived in Dawson with a few hundred dollars. Two miners, who had staked No. 29 Eldorado, decided that he was the proper man upon whom to “unload.” He was too canny to approach sober, so at a considerable expense they got him drunk. Even then it was hard work, but they kept him befuddled for several days, and finally, inveigled him into buying No. 29 for $750. When Anderson sobered up, he wept at his folly, and pleaded to have his money back. But the men who had duped him were hard-hearted. They laughed at him, and kicked themselves for not having tapped him for a couple of hundred more. Nothing remained for Anderson but to work the worthless ground. This he did, and out of it he took over three-quarters of a million of dollars.” (Jack London, The Gold Hunters of the North, in Revolution and Other Essays)

1898 Finding of the Kensington Stone, a slab of Runic inscriptions, dated 1362, in Minnesota.

1898 Archaeologist Cornelia Horsford’s Dwellings of the Saga Time in Iceland, Greenland, and Vineland. Cornelia is the daughter of Eben Norton Horsford (see 1889).

1898 Danish engineer Valdemar Poulsen patents the “telegraphone,” the first magnetic wire recorder, in the US. “It might be of interest to mention that the Poulsen patent on the steel recorder is the only patent ever issued in the United States by virtue of a special Act of Congress.” (P. L. Jensen, The Great Voice, 1975)

1898 Danish immigrant Frode Rambusch founds the Rambusch Decorating Company in New York City. Still active today (from New Jersey), the company restores and decorates church interiors, designs lighting and stained glass work, has decorated many elaborate movie palaces, etc.

1899 Thorstein Veblen’s Theory of the Leisure Class. On Veblen, see Thorstein Veblen, 1968, edited by Norwegian-American historian Carlton C. Qualey, otherwise known for his works on Norwegian immigration to America.

1899 Norwegian-born mathematician and engineer Carl Georg Barth is hired by Frederick W. Taylor to work with him at Bethlehem Steel Co., where he popularized the use of compound slide rules. Barth is thus a pioneer of scientific management, a.k.a. Taylorism.

1899 Foundation of the Swedish-American Telephone Company by Ellsworth Overshiner and Swedish-born John Gullborg. “The [Swedish-American Telephone Co.] is the first independent manufacturer to place on the market a transmitter that is absolutely superior to the American Bell long distance.” (Telephone Magazine via Made in Chicago Museum). In 1906 the company claimed they were “the largest manufacturers of independent telephones.”

1899 Swedish-born Carl Swanson becomes a partner with John O. Hjerpe (or, Americanized, Jerpe; a Swedish name) in a wholesale company that will become the food production company Swanson. In 1953 the company, under Carl’s two sons, Gilbert Carl and W. Clarke, launches “TV dinners,” which commercial success introduces frozen meals in American homes nationally.

1900

1900 Minneapolis is the Scandinavian capital of America, the center of Swedish and Norwegian newspapers, churches, and seminaries.

1901 Charles Walgreen, born to Swedish immigrants (Wahlgren), starts a pharmacy in Chicago. Today, Walgreens Boots Alliance is the 26^th largest U.S. company.

1902 Swedish-born Justice P. Seeburg, born Sjöberg, founds the J.P. Seeburg Piano Company in Chicago, manufacturing orchestrions and automatic pianos. In 1949 the company, managed by his son Noel, introduces a jukebox mechanism that nearly puts all other manufacturers out of business, then incurring, and losing, a lawsuit under the anti-trust law in the nineteen-fifties.

1902 Chicago-based Ottilie Liljencrantz writes her first Viking romance, The Thrall of Leif the Lucky, based on the journeys of Leif Erikson to Greenland and America. Other novels include The Ward of King Canute, 1903, and The Vinland Champions, 1904.

1903 Norwegian-born newspaperman and writer, friend of Ole Rolvaag’s, Waldemar Ager becomes editor of Eau Claire, Wisconsin newspaper Reform (a position he kept till his death in 1941). Among other things, Ager was a prominent supporter of Prohibition. His books include On the way to the Melting Pot (1917). (Einar Haugen [see 1972i] wrote Ager’s biography: Immigrant Idealist: A Literary Biography of Waldemar Ager, Norwegian American, 1989.)

1903 Swedish-born Charles Borg and Marshall Beck found Borg & Beck, designing and selling car parts. In 1909 they invent the first practical sliding clutch. Merging with other manufacturers in 1928, they form the Borg-Warner group, of which, among other activities, the Norge Appliance Company provides appliances for the nationwide laundromat chain Norge, well-known in the nineteen-fifties. (Norge is the Norwegian name of Norway.)

1904 Swedish-born engineer Ernst Alexanderson patents the “Alexanderson alternator,” an early radio transmitter: it was one of the first devices capable of generating the radio waves needed for transmission of amplitude modulated signals by radio and was used to transmit transoceanic messages by Morse code.

1905 Alexander Pierce Anderson, born to Swedish immigrants, patents the process for making puffed rice cereals and starts the Anderson Puffed Rice Company. Quaker Oats Co., partnering with Anderson, advertised the cereal as “Dr. Anderson’s Gift,” “the Eighth Wonder of the World,” and “Food Shot From Guns.”

1905 Norwegian-born labor leader Olaf Tveitmoe founds the Asiatic Exclusion League, a political organization advocating immigration restrictions to bolster domestic wages.

1906 Danish-born Soren Sorensen “Sam” Adams founds The Cachoo Sneezing Powder Company, later S.S. Adams Co., undisputed leader in practical joke and magic trick manufacturing.

1907 Norwegian-born Ole Evinrude invents the first outboard motor with commercial application.

1907 The Swedish-American Art Association is founded in Chicago. Founding members include painters Arvid Nyholm, Henry Reuterdahl, Gerda Ahlm, and its first president was sculptor Carl Johann Nilsson.

1908 Swedish-born Velma Swanston Howard embarks on translating Selma Lagerlöf’s works in English, which she will be doing for some twenty years. She also translated some of Strindberg’s works. In this same year 1908 she has a novel of her own, När Maja-Lisa kom hem från Amerika (When Maja-Lisa comes back from America), published in Stockholm by the Nationalförening mot emigrationen (see 1912).

1909 The Federal Telegraph Company, initially known as the Poulsen Wireless Telephone and Telegraph Company, named after Valdemar Poulsen (see 1898iii), licenses the Poulsen arc converter transmitter for use in the US. Use of arc transmitters largely ceased in the 1920s, supplanted by Alexanderson alternators (see 1904).

1909 Swedish-born painter Carl Oscar Borg is a founding member of the California Art Club.

1910

1910 Even as late as 1910, Scandinavian immigrants are less inclined to settle in cities than other immigrant arrivals.

1910 Establishment of the Scandinavian Socialist Federation, a national organization which united local Swedish, Norwegian, and Danish language Socialist clubs scattered around the United States.

1910 The Kensington Rune-Stone: An Address, by scholar George Tobias Flom, of Norwegian ancestry, in which he claims the stone is a forgery. In 1909 Flom had published a History of Norwegian Immigration to the United States: From the Earliest Beginnings Down to the Year 1848.

1910 Vincent Bendix, born to Swedish immigrants, founder in 1907 of the Bendix Corporation in Chicago to manufacture his automobiles, the Bendix Buggies, patents the “Bendix drive,” self-starter for automobiles, eliminating the hand cranks previously used. In 1929 he founds Bendix Aviation Corp. and in 1942 Bendix Helicopters, Inc. In 1936, Bendix Corp. licensed its name to Bendix Home Appliances, which in 1937 marketed the first domestic automatic washing machine.

1910 John P. Groset, born Johan Pedersen Grøseth in Norway, patents the first automatic ice cream cone machine.

1911 Swedish-born geologist Johan August Udden, who from 1880 developed many analytical techniques that allowed the full opening of America’s oil fields, creates at the University of Texas the first geology laboratory dedicated to the oil industry.

1911 Swedish-born David Sundstrand invents an adding machine that is the very first to use the now ubiquitous “3×3 above zero” key arrangement. In 1926 he creates with his brother Oscar the Sundstrand Machine Tool Company, later Sundstrand Corporation, later (1999) Hamilton Sundstrand, manufacturing industrial and aerospace products.

1911 The Danish-American Colony Company, established in 1910, founds Solvang in California, today known as the Danish Capital of America. The city hosts the Elverhøj Museum of History and Art and the Hans Christian Andersen Museum.

1911 During his Antarctic expedition, Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen names a mountain near the South Pole Mount Ruth Gade, after the wife of his Norwegian-American donor John Allyne Gade.

1911 Emanuel Swedenborg och hans inflytande i Amerika (Swedenborg and his influence in America), Minneapolis, by Swedish-American Axel Lundeberg, a minister of the Swedenborgian faith in Minneapolis.

1912 Swedish sociologist Adrian Molin, a prominent member of the National Society Against Emigration (Nationalförening mot emigrationen) and editor of its publication Hem i Sverige (Home in Sweden), after a travel to North America publishes Hur svensk-amerikanerna bo (How Swedish-Americans Live).

1912 Cliff Sterret, of Scandinavian background, launches at the New York Evening Journal the cartoon Polly and Her Pals, of great repute and influence in the genre.

1912 Eric Pierson Swenson, son of Swante Swenson (see 1972iv), founds the mining company Freeport Sulphur, a major player to this day. From 1921 to 1929 Eric P. Swenson headed the board of directors of the largest American bank, National City Bank of New York.

1913 Swedish-born Frank Lindstrom founds the Lindstrom Tool and Toy Company in Bridgeport, Connecticut. The company marketed such mechanical toys as Sweeping Mammy, Shufflin’ Sam the Dancing Coon, Johnny the Dancing Clown, Dancing Dutch Boy, Speedboat Baby, the Lindstrom Projector, pinballs, and so on.

1914 The Voyages of the Norsemen in America, by Danish-American leading expert in shipbuilding (at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology) William Hovgaard, who, based on his knowledge of navigation, concludes that Leif Erikson may have reached the south coast of Cape Cod, that is, Nantucket Sound.

1914 Swedish-born Eric Wickman starts the activity that will become the largest bus services company in the world from the thirties to the nineties, Greyhound Lines.

1914 Norwegian-American brothers Carl and Alfred Lomen, purchasing reindeer herds from Lapps in Scandinavia, start running the meatpacking Lomen Company in Alaska. The Reindeer Act of 1937 stopped their business, then the largest owner of herds in Alaska, by making it illegal to own reindeers except for Natives (the introduction of reindeer in Alaska had aimed at making Eskimos a self-supporting people). Lomen and department store chain Macy’s introduced the reindeer Christmas imagery to the American public during Christmas 1926. Carl Lomen published his autobiography, Fifty Years in Alaska, in 1954.

1914-1915 Icelandic-American Vilhjalmur Stefansson became a world-famous explorer of the Arctic; he showed how, by using local resources, explorers could spend years north of the Arctic circle. See his book The Friendly Arctic, 1921. Another one is his Iceland: The First American Republic, 1939.

1915 Swedish-born glass engineer Alexander Samuelson patents the characteristic bottle that Coca-Cola will use from 1916 on.

1915 Scandinavian-Americans form the backbone of the Farmers’ Non-Partisan League.

1916 Fry cook Walter Anderson, born to Swedish immigrants, invents the hamburger bun, in Wichita, Kansas. In 1921, he co-founds White Castle, the world’s first fast food hamburger chain. – Among other claimants to the title of hamburger inventor is Danish immigrant Louis Lassen, from New Haven, CT (1900).

1917 U.S. purchases the Danish West Indies (Virgin Islands), where live 3,200 Danes, who acquire American citizenship in 1927. As part of the deal, the Lansing Declaration (1916) is redacted, by which the U.S. recognizes Danish rights over the whole of Greenland. Declaration of sovereignty over the whole of Greenland is made by Denmark in 1921.

1917 Danish-born Peter L. Jensen co-founds with Edwin S. Pridham the Magnavox company to sell their moving-coil loudspeaker. Magnavox became a major American brand of consumer electronics, manufacturing in 1972 the first home video game console, Odyssey. Jensen’s autobiography, The Great Voice, was published in 1975 by his daughter.

1917 Swedish-born Gideon Sundbäck patents the zipper or zip fastener.

1917 Norwegian-American Henry Oyen writes novel Gaston Olaf, made into a film the same year by director Francis Ford as The Avenging Trail with actor Harold Lockwood.

1918-1935 Comic strip in Norwegian Han Ola og han Per by Peter J. Rosendahl in newspaper Decorah-Posten, Decorah, Iowa.

1918 Norwegian-born senator for Minnesota and former governor of the state Knute Nelson is member of the Overman Committee, which concludes in June 1919 that Communism in Russia is “a reign of terror unparalleled in the history of modern civilization.” Knute Nelson Monument by Norwegian-American sculptor John Karl Daniels stands at the Minnesota State Capitol since 1928.

1919 Inauguration of Bryn Athyn Cathedral, episcopal seat of the Swedenborgian General Church of the New Jerusalem.

1919 Andrew Volstead, a Norwegian-American Congressman from Minnesota, writes the Prohibition Law.

1919 After Flom described the Kensington Stone as a forgery (see 1910iii), the Wisconsin Magazine of History publishes a paper by Norwegian-born historian Hjalmar Holand reaffirming that the Stone is genuine. Holand publishes a second paper in the same magazine in 1920. Norwegian-American scholar Laurence M. Larson discusses Holand’s views in the June 1921 issue of Scandinavian Studies and Notes (“The Kensington Rune Stone”), tending to align with Flom’s conclusions (“Until some competent scholar, one who knows runes and Northern dialects, shall decide otherwise, this conclusion is likely to stand”; nota bene: “Larson was a member of the committee before which Prof. Blom argued his report, and he coincided with the decision reached”), yet stressing the relevance of some of Holand’s points. Holand further expatiated on his findings, in Scandinavian Studies and Notes issues of 1921 and 1922 (“Five Objections Against the Kensington Rune Stone”).

1919 Laurence M. Larson (see previous entry) publishes “The Church in North America (Greenland) in the Middle Ages,” in Scandinavian Notes and Studies (Oct. 1919).

1919 Norwegian-American Conrad Hilton purchases his first hotel, in Cisco, Texas.

1920

1920 The statue of Viking explorer Thorfinn Karlsefni by Icelandic sculptor Einar Jónsson is unveiled in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia. The statue was toppled by vandals in 2018.

1920 Americanism versus Bolshevism, by the former Republican mayor of Seattle, Washington, Ole Hanson, born to Norwegian immigrants. As mayor he dealt with the 1919 Seattle general strike with a strong hand, and was targeted by an anarchist bomb mail. In 1925 he founded San Clemente, California, as a “Spanish-style coastal resort town.”

1921 The Swedish-Lutheran Church in America resolves to conduct all services in English (at that time, 85% of preaching was still in Swedish).

1921 At the Second International Conference on Eugenics (New York), Dr Jon Alfred Mjøen from Norway introduces the resolution creating the committee which ultimately organized the American Eugenics Society. Mjøen was editor of journal Den Nordiske Race (The Nordic Race).

1921 John Augustus Larson, born to Swedish parents and the first American police officer with an academic doctorate, invents the polygraph (called “lie detector” by the press: Larson referred to it as a “cardio-pneumo psychogram”). He later opposed the usage made of it by some law enforcement.

1921 Danish immigrant William Petersen patents the locking pliers, aka Vise-Grip (improved by a second patent in 1924).

1921 Christian Nelson, an immigrant from Denmark and owner of an ice cream parlor in Iowa, invents the Eskimo pie.

1922 Howard Hanson, born in Nebraska to Swedish immigrant parents, composes his Nordic Symphony (No. 1).

1922 Ralph Samuelson, of Swedish descent, invents water skiing, in Lake City, Minnesota.

1922 Swedish-born Ragnar Benson, who started working in America as a bricklayer, founds in Chicago Ragnar Benson Inc., which became one of the ten largest companies in the U.S.

1923 The Hobo: The Sociology of the Homeless Man by Nels Anderson (Chicago School of Sociology).

1923 Henrik Shipstead, born to Norwegian immigrants, is the first Farmer-Labor party candidate elected to the U.S. Senate, for Minnesota. He served four consecutive terms, from 1923 to 1947, since 1940 as a Republican.

1924 Certain Factors Affecting Telegraph Speed, scientific paper by Swedish-born electronic engineer Harry Nyquist that laid the ground for the information theory developed by Claude Shannon. Terms named for H. Nyquist: Nyquist rate, Nyquist frequency, Nyquist filter, Nyquist plot, Nyquist ISI criterion, Nyquist stability criterion, Johnson-Nyquist noise, Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem.

1924 English translation by Arthur G. Chater, in three volumes, of Danish writer Johannes Jensen’s series of novels The Long Journey. Starting from the primeval forest and the Ice Age, through Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages, the series ends with the discovery of America by Vikings and finally by Christopher Columbus, as an epic rendition of the Nordic race’s longings and achievements. Jensen received the 1944 Nobel Prize of Literature.

1924 Chikabohéme: 13. Noveller (The Boheme of “Chikago”: 13 Short Stories) by Ossian Elgström (Stockholm).

1924 Swedish-born physicist Carl Wickland publishes Thirty Years Among the Dead, a Swedenborgian account of his psychotherapies based on spiritualism en vogue at the time.

1924 Norwegian Nils Waltersen Aasen, inventor prior to WWI of the hand grenade and land mine, moves to the U.S. where he establishes the Aasen Corporation of America, focused on military innovations.

1925 Ole Edvart Rølvaag’s Giants in the Earth (Verdens Grøde).

1925 Cosmic Evolution: Outlines of Cosmic Idealism, by Swedish-born philosopher John Elof Boodin, whose work “preserved the tradition of philosophical idealism within the framework of contemporary science” (Wkpd).

1925 Celebration of the Norse-American Centennial in St Paul, Minnesota, celebrating the arrival of the sloop Restauration in New York from Stavanger, Norway, in 1825, which opened Norwegian immigration to America. A Norse-American Centennial Book is published the same year. In the first chapter, Norwegian-American author Martin W. Odland not only asserts the historical truth of the Vinland sagas but also claims that Norwegian sailors later played a major role in the Dutch marine, New Amsterdam colony, and the building of New York City. He writes, for instance, that the first white child born in New York was a Norwegian boy named Jon Vinge. Odland also penned, among other things, a biography of Knut Nelson (see 1918), The Life of Knute Nelson, 1926.

1925 Servel (later Servel Electrolux) buys American rights to the Swedish 1922 patent for a continuous absorption refrigerator and starts to focus on the gas refrigeration market. In the following years, it advertises its refrigerators for their silence: “Servel Electrolux serves you in silence” (1936 with a poster showing two sleeping children), “Mandy’s giving us another chance since we changed to silence” (1941 with the words “to silence” underlined), “This time I know our refrigerator will be PERMANENTLY SILENT because it’s a Servel Electrolux – it freezes with NO MOVING PARTS.” (Year?) Back to the future! Servel Electrolux was the only manufacturer of gas refrigerators in the U.S. for 30 years (1927-1956). The consumer’s gilded age of the nineteen-fifties, based on the individual house fully equipped with household appliances, rested largely on this Swedish-American venture.

1925 It is estimated that by 1925 the Swedish immigrant farmers had cleared or farmed over 12,000,000 acres of land in the U.S.

1926 Foundation of the American Swedish Historical Museum in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, by Swedish-American historian Amandus Johnson (see 1638i). Johnson “chose Philadelphia as the location because of its connection to the New Sweden Colony” (American Swedish Historical Museum: Our History).

1926 Sweden and the American Revolution by Swedish-born scholar Adolph B. Benson. Benson also published in 1938 Swedes in America, 1638-1938, with Naboth Hedin, a publication of the Swedish American Tercentenary Association.

1926 Swedish film director Victor Sjöström, working in Hollywood from 1924 to 1937, makes The Scarlet Letter, from Hawthorne’s novel, with Lilian Gish and Swedish actor Lars Hanson.

1926 Danish film director Benjamin Christensen, maker of the famous 1922 film Häxan (Witchcraft Through the Ages) starts a three-year American career with film Devil’s Circus starring Norma Shearer.

1926 Reuben Trane invents the convector radiator. He was a co-founder in 1913 in La Crosse, Wisconsin, with his father James (born Jens) Trane, from Norway, of the company Trane, active to this day.

1926-1930 Swedish engineer Alvar Lenning leads Electrolux U.S. refrigeration laboratory. Lenning is the designer of “Assistent,” the stand mixer kitchen appliance commercialized by Electrolux in 1940 that became the company’s bestseller (see 1925iii on the importance of Electrolux for the American consumer’s gilded age).

1927 Charles Lindbergh, son of Swedish immigrants, makes his famous pioneer flight New York-Paris non-stop.

1927 Philo Farnsworth, a Mormon from Utah of Danish ancestry and a farm boy, patents the first electronic television system. He is nicknamed “the father of television.”

1927 Frank W. Ofeldt, grandson of Frank Ofeldt (see 1883ii), patents the first steam pressure washer, “high-pressure Jenny.”

1927 Dania, Florida, thus named because the first settlers were Danish farmers, “Tomato Capital of the World” since 1910, launches its Tomato Day Celebration, which became an annual Tomato Festival. Tomato production declined in the fifties due to infiltration of salty waters in the grounds.

1929 The Leif Erikson Memorial Association is organized to promote the establishment of a Leif Erikson Day.

1929 Lake Shore Park in Duluth, Minnesota, is renamed Leif Erikson Park, and the Norwegian-made replica of Leif’s ship was long placed on display in the park (the ship had sailed from Norway in 1927).

1929 Psychologist Joseph Peterson, born in Utah to Mormon parents from Denmark, and his student Lyle H. Lanier at Vanderbilt University, publish Studies in the Comparative Abilities of Whites and Negroes, in which they claim that Whites are “superior” intellectually due to “hereditary differences.” Peterson was head of the American Psychological Association in 1934.

1930

1930 Danish archeologists Poul Nørlund and Aage Roussell in Sandnes, Greenland, on the site of the ancient Viking western settlement (Vesterbygden), where Thorfinn Karlsefni and his men are believed to have settled, find anthracite coal that is not from Greenland and has been identified as originating from Rhode Island.

1930 Cartoonist Floyd Gottfredson, born in a Mormon family of Utah with Danish roots, starts working on the Mickey Mouse comic strip for Disney. His work will be the defining factor for the world-renowned character until his retirement in 1975.

1931 Agent Eliot Ness, born to Norwegian immigrants, and his team of “Untouchables” manage to have infamous mobster Al Capone convicted (for “federal income tax invasion”). Prosecution was overseen by assistant U.S. attorney general Gustav Aaron Youngquist, born in Sweden.

1931 Icelandic scholar Sigurdur Nordal’s first of eight lectures (1931-32) for the Charles Eliot Norton Professorship at Harvard University, on “The Spirit of Icelandic Literature.” Nordal is known for his influential views on the Icelandic Sagas.

1931 Swedish operatic tenor of international repute Gustav Harald Lindau, aka Aroldo Lindi, settles in America (San Carlo Opera company, Chicago).

1931 Swedish-American illustrator Haddon Sundblom designs his famous Coca Cola Santa Claus (based on his own earlier versions, starting in the 1920s); drawing Santa with a red suit for the first time, “he is credited as having created the modern image of Santa Claus” (Wkpd) (together with Swedish illustrator Jenny Nyström for the jultomte or nisse associated with Santa in the modern imagery). One of Sundblom’s famous students was artist Harry Anderson, born to Swedish immigrants.

1932 Einar Lund’s novel Solveig Murphy (the title says it all). (The novel – or is it, rather, a novella or short story? – seems quite obscure, since there is no trace of it on the internet. I believe I found it mentioned in The Nature of the Place: A Study of Great Plains Fiction, 1995, by Diane D. Quantic. Einar Lund’s daughter, Eva Lund Haugen, wrote her father’s biography: “An Editor Chooses America: The Story of Einar Lund,” 1991. Eva was married to Einar Haugen, see 1972i. The main literary treatment of Irish-Scandinavian intermarriage is Rølvaag’s third novel of his trilogy, namely Their Father’s God from 1931.)

1934 Swedish-born Carl Friden founds the Friden Calculating Machine Company in San Leandro, California. “Friden introduced the first fully transistorized desktop electronic calculator, the model EC-130 in June 1963” (Wkpd).

1934 Viking Mettles by Swedish-American journalist and poet Johan G.R. Banér, from Ironwood, Michigan. The book is a collection of poems interspersed with historical considerations on the pre-Colombian mines in Michigan, especially L’Isle Royale. According to Banér, these mines were of Viking origin. Although current historiography imparts a much greater antiquity to said activities, it should be noted that Michigan is about the only place in North America where pre-Colombian mines have been found, the reason for which remains unclear if one assumes that pre-Colombian Indians in North America were familiar with mining.

1935 Norwegian-born Torkild Rieber becomes Texaco’s chairman. He was forced to resign in 1940 over oil supply to Germany’s Third Reich.

1936 Physicist Carl David Anderson, born to Swedish parents, receives the Nobel Prize with Victor Hess for the discovery of the positron in 1932. In 1936, Anderson and his graduate student Seth Neddermeyer discover the muon.

1936 Swedish-born Gustaf Tenggren is appointed artistic director of Disney Studios (his contributions include Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, Fantasia, Bambi, and Pinocchio).

1936 A copy of Norwegian painter Christian Krohg’s painting Leiv Eiriksson Discovers America by his son Per Krohg, commissioned by Norwegians as a gift to the government of the United States, is presented and has been hanging at the Capitol, Washington D.C., the Senate Wing, since then.

1936 Painter Christian von Schneidau, born to Swedish immigrants and famous for his portraits, founds the Scandinavian-American Art Society of the West, in California.

1936 Take All To Nebraska, Danish-American novelist Sophus Keith Winther’s first part of his Grimsen Trilogy (1936, Mortgage Your Heart, 1937, This Passion Never Dies, 1938) about Danish immigrants who never attain freedom from landlord or mortgage-holder.

1936 Demise of Icelandic-American poet Kristjan Niels Julius (1860-1936), buried at Thingvalla Lutheran Church, North Dakota. The church was destroyed by an accidental fire in 2003 but there remains a memorial to K.N. Julius.

1936 Former representative for Minnesota Ernest Lundeen, of Swedish ancestry, is elected Senator from Minnesota as Minnesota Farmer-Labor Party (FL) candidate, a position he held until his accidental death in 1940. He is said to have been sympathetic to Germany’s Third Reich, of which his collaboration with author George Sylvester Viereck would be evidence.

1936 In his White Indians of Darien, Charles Oglesby Marsh, who accompanied a number of Cuna or Tule Indians from Panama to the U.S. and introduced them to some scholars, writes: “Finally the linguists came to me and reported, ‘The anthropologists can tell you what they please, Marsh, but some ancient Norse people certainly taught the Tule people their language.’ They found that the Tule language had a Sanskrit or Aryan structure, not mongoloid, and they discovered over sixty words identical with early Norse.” (More details are lacking in the book, and the quoted linguists are not named.)

1936 Harold Swanson, of Swedish descent, and his wife Ruth start Swanson’s Cookie Company in Battle Creek, Michigan. To avoid confusion with C.A. Swanson (see 1899ii) the name was changed to Archway Cookies in 1954.

1937 Western Electric manufactures the Model 302 telephone, obviously inspired by the Ericsson (Swedish company) DBH 1001 from 1931, which was the first combined telephone set with a housing and handset made from Bakelite.

1937 Jac Jacobsen, founder of the Norwegian company Luxo ASA, invents the Luxo L-1 balanced-arm lamp. It became the inspiration for the 1986 animated short film Luxo Jr. by Pixar Animation Studios and figures on the Pixar logo.

1937 First of The Charlie McCarthy Show on radio, with actor, ventriloquist, and puppeteer Edgar Bergen, of Swedish descent, “the quintessential ventriloquist of the 20^th century in America,” according to the International Puppetry Association.

1937 Journalist Ferdinand Lundberg publishes his America’s 60 Families about American plutocracy.

1938 Kierkegaard by Walter Lowrie, first English biography of the Danish philosopher. Lowrie worked closely with Swedish-born scholar David Ferdinand Swenson on English translations of Kierkegaard’s works.

1938 Full Recovery or Stagnation by Harvard professor Alvin Hansen, the “American Keynes.” He introduced Keynesian economics in the states and “played a role in the formation of the Social Security System in 1935 and the Full Employment Act of 1946 that established the Council of Economic Advisors” (Nielsen & Petersen).

1938 Åland-born comic writer and artist Paul Gustavson creates The Human Bomb for Quality Comics. In 1939 he creates The Angel for the first publication of Timely Comics.

1938 Swedish-born engineer (“Swedish-American of the Year” for 1960) and owner of Bridgeport Co. Rudolph Bannow commercializes his idea, the Bridgeport turret milling machine, “the world’s most successful and so widely copied milling machine”: “This versatile machine became the foundation of the “tool and die” business of thousands of small job shops.” (Machine Tool Hall of Fame)

1939 Engineer (“Swedish-American of the Year” for 1963) Elmer Engstrom’s works at Radio Corporation of America (RCA) lead to RCA’s all-electronic black-and-white television system. RCA began selling its first television sets around this time. Engstrom also developed RCA color television, as head of RCA Laboratories, and became RCA’s President (1961-65) and CEO (1966-68).

1939 Norwegian-born Jacob Thorkelson, a Republican, is elected U.S. Congressman for Montana’s first congressional district, a position he held until 1941. He was dubbed “the mouthpiece of the Nazi movement in Congress.” Among other texts, he published A Norwegian Angle (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1940).

1939 Swedish actress Ingrid Bergman starts her ten-year American career. She has been called the “ideal of American womanhood” (Pendergast, 2000). She ranks 4^th greatest female star on the American Film Institute’s list (just before Greta Garbo, another Swede, 5^th, and Marilyn Monroe, born Norma Jean Mortenson, of Norwegian ancestry through her father, 6^th).

1939 Norwegian-born Ole Bardahl founds the Bardahl Oil Company, the leading brand of motor oils and oil additives in the U.S.

1940

1940 The Bay Ridge area of Brooklyn (NYC), sometimes called a suburb of Oslo, in 1940 has the largest concentration of Norwegians outside Norway (almost 55,000 persons). Eighth Avenue in Brooklyn was nicknamed Lapskaus Boulevard in the days of “Little Norway.” (See Andreas Nilsen Rygg, Norwegians in New York 1825-1925, 1941.)

1940 Mount Eisen, in the Sierra Nevada in California, is named after Swedish-born polymath Gustav Eisen (1847-1940), honorary member of the California Academy of Sciences.

1940 Danish-born illustrator of fairy tales (Andersen, Grimm, Perrault…) Kay Nielsen is art director on Disney animated film Fantasia.

1940 The Viking and The Red Man: The Old Norse Origin of the Algonquin Language, by Reider Thorbjorn Sherwin. The book receives a scathing review in the Aug. 1940 issue of Scandinavian Studies and Notes. (The same journal had published in its Nov. 1930 issue a paper by Martin Severin Peterson titled “Some Scandinavian Elements in a Micmac Swan Maiden Story,” the conclusion of which reads: “While the possibility of ever establishing conclusively the line of travel taken by primitive, unwritten stories is remote, it seems to me, in this case, in view of the fact that the Indian stories draw from two foreign sources, and in the case of the Norse, from a Swan Maiden literature embedded in Scandinavian mythology, that the journey of the Swan Maidens was from the east, via the arctic circle, to the west.”)

1940 Danish-born magician Harry August Jansen, aka “The Great Jansen,” aka “Dante the Magician,” produces his Broadway revue Sim-Sala-Bim. He was called “America’s greatest transformist” and was one of the best-known magicians in the world.

1941 The carving of Mount Rushmore National Memorial is officially ended. It was achieved by sculptor Gutzon Borglum, born in Idaho to Danish Mormon polygamist parents, and his son Lincoln.

1941 Founding, in America, by Swedish businessman Axel Wenner-Gren (Electrolux) of the Viking Fund, which became in 1951 the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research.

1941 First biennial Svensk Hyllningsfest (Swedish Honoring Festival) in Lindsborg, Kansas.

1942 Chester Carlson, the son of Swedish immigrants, patents xerography (the photocopier).

1942 With German-American entrepreneur Hans Knoll, Danish-born designer Jens Risom founds the Hans Knoll Furniture Company, influential on modern design. Risom launched his own company, Jens Risom Design, in 1946.

1942 Some Early English and American Strindberg Criticism by Swedish-American literary scholar and translator Alrik Gustafson.

1942 In his book on the Newport Tower (Newport, Rhode Island), historian Philip Ainsworth Means concludes that it is of pre-Colombian, presumably Scandinavian origin. (P.A. Means, Newport Tower, 1942) The same is quoted by Hjalmar R. Holand in the latter’s 1940 book (see 1749 and 1960) thus: “Coming thus from a scholar who has made such a thorough study of the inscription [of the Kensington Stone, which, according to Means, is genuine] the following tentative statement, from a new book on a related subject which will soon be issued by Mr. Means [which must be Means’s book on the Newport tower] is of great interest … ‘A manuscript of the fourteenth century in Paris makes it look very probable that Vinland was then a secret colony of the King of Norway.’” The idea that the Newport Tower was of Scandinavian origin is already in Gabriel Gravier’s 1874 book Découverte de l’Amérique par les Normands au X^e siècle (Discovery of America by the Normans in the tenth century AD), Gravier taking it from Rafn (see at 1837).

1942 Danish immigrant William Knudsen, president of General Motors, is appointed by President F.D. Roosevelt to mobilize American industry for war production in WWII. “Míster Knudsen, director eminente de la General Motors y asociado principal de la Opel en Alemania, fue designado Director General de la Defensa: en los Estados Unidos, no en Alemania.” (Juan José Arévalo, Fábula del tiburón y las sardinas)

1943 The Chinese Exclusion Repeal Act of 1943, or Magnuson Act, named after U.S. Representative Warren Magnuson, adopted son of second-generation Scandinavian immigrants, is passed. It repealed the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, allowing for an annual quota of 105 Chinese immigrants, at the same time maintaining the ban against the ownership of property and businesses by ethnic Chinese.

1944 The library building completed in 1942 at St. Olaf College is named Rolvaag Memorial Library after Ole E. Rolvaag (see 1925).

1944 Swedish-born Thorsten Sellin, a pioneer of scientific criminology, helps draft the U.S. Uniform Criminal Statistics Act. Among his writings, The Protective Code: A Swedish Proposal (1957).

1945 Swedish-born Carl Strandlund patents the Lustron Home, a prefabricated enameled steel house. It was promoted to address housing shortage after WW2.

1946 Flicka Ricka Dicka and the New Dotted Dresses, by Swedish illustrator and writer for children Maj Lindman. This is the most successful of her books written in English for American readers, which became staple goods in Scandinavian-American homes.

1947 Finn Ronne, a Norwegian-American, establishes that Antarctica is one continent.

1947 Grass Roots History by historian Theodore C. Blegen, on the methodology of doing historical research through the “literature of the unlettered.” Blegen, superintendent of the Minnesota Historical Society, had published in 1936 a book of Norwegian Emigrant Songs and Ballads (with English translations by Martin B. Ruud).

1947 Red Star Over Hollywood by Swedish-born former Communist Oliver Carlson turned anti-Communist writer and witness before the House Committee on Un-American Activities (HCUA).

1947 First show of Kukla, Fran and Olie with comedienne Fran Allison, by puppeteer Burr Tillstrom, born to Swedish immigrants. The show, which was to last until 1967, is a milestone of televised puppetry art. In 1950 Tillstrom directed TV-film The Wizard of Oz, based on L. Frank Baum’s novel, with puppets he created.

1948 The Kensington Stone is placed in the Smithsonian Institution.

1949 The Leif Erikson Memorial by Norwegian-American sculptor John Karl Daniels is unveiled on the grounds of Minnesota State Capitol.

1949 Lilian Swenson, widow of David F. Swenson (see 1938i), establishes the David F. Swenson-Kierkegaard Memorial Fund, to grant annual fellowships for the study of Danish philosopher Kierkegaard.

1950

1950 Cartoonist Charles Monroe “Sparky” Schulz from Minneapolis, of German and, via his mother, Norwegian descent, starts the comic strip Peanuts, featuring Charlie Brown and Snoopy.

1950 Danish illustrator Kurt Ard settles in California. Influenced by Norman Rockwell, he was one of the most popular magazine illustrators of his time. He returned to Denmark in 1953.

1951 Chemist Glenn Theodore Seaborg, of Swedish ancestry, receives with Edwin McMillan the Nobel Prize for the discovery and isolation of ten transuranic elements, including seaborgium, which was named in his honor.

1951 John Erik Jonsson, born to Swedish immigrants, as vice-president and treasurer of Geophysical Service Inc. co-founds Texas Instruments in Dallas, and is its first president, until 1958, then chairman of the board until 1966. He was mayor of Dallas from 1964 to 1971. “Swedish American of the Year” for 1983.

1951 Danish-born illustrator Paul Detlefsen publishes his first calendar, The Good Old Days. “His art was lithographed into calendars, reproductions, playing cards, jigsaw puzzles, mats for tables, and even four-foot-wide wall murals. … In 1969, UPI (United Press International) estimated that 80% of all Americans had seen his work.” (Wkpd)

1953 Earl Warren, son of Norwegian immigrant Matt Varren from Stavanger and his wife Crystal from Sweden, is appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court.

1954 Premiere of Prayers of Kierkegaard cantata by American composer Samuel Barber, with texts from the Danish philosopher.

1954 The merger of Nash-Kelvinator Corporation and Hudson Motor Car Company forms the American Motors Corporation (AMC), the largest corporate consolidation to date. Chairman and CEO of Nash-Kelvinator, George Walter Mason, born to Norwegian-American parents, becomes chairman and CEO of AMC. He died a few months later. He had been at the head of Kelvinator from 1928 to 1937, and at the head of Nash-Kelvinator from 1937 to 1954.

1955 Bendix Corporation (see 1910) launches the Bendix G-15 computer, “sometimes described as the first personal computer, because it has the Intercom interpretive system. The title is disputed by other machines, such as the LGP-30 [Librascope company] (shipped in late 1956), and the DEC LINC [DEC: see 1957] (March 1962) and PDP-8 [DEC] (March 1965), while some maintain that only microcomputers, such as those which appeared in the 1970s, can be called personal computers.” (Wkpd)

1955 Dahlberg Electronics, founded in 1948 by Kenneth Dahlberg (Scandinavian-American Hall of Fame), introduces the first so-called “in-the-ear” hearing aid, the D-10 Magic Ear, and in 1962 the first hearing aid using integrated circuitry, the Miracle-Ear IV. In 1952 Dahlberg introduced the coin-operated pillow radio, for the hotel and hospital markets.

1955 Jim Henson creates the puppet television show The Muppets. (I have no specific information about Henson’s, born in Mississippi, background, except that his name sounds or may sound Scandinavian and above all in 2003 he was inducted in the Scandinavian-American Hall of Fame in Minot, ND.)

1955 Mesta Machinery manufactures the Alcoa 50,000-ton forging press (labelled a “National Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark”). The president of Mesta Machinery from 1930 to 1963 was Danisg-born Lorenz Iversen.

1956 Release of IBM 350 disk storage unit, the first disk drive, conceived by the team led by Reinhold Johnson, born to Swedish immigrants. For his works and patents, Johnson is nicknamed “the father of the hard disk drive.”

1956 The “tulip chair” by Finnish-American architect and designer Eero Saarinen (for the Knoll company: see 1942ii).

1957 Ken Olsen, of Norwegian and Swedish stock, and Harlan Anderson (Scandinavian name) found the Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), which became the second world’s largest computer company from the 60s to the 90s.

1959 Leo Heikkinen, of Finnish background, incorporates forestry company Prentice Hydraulics in Prentice, Wisconsin, to manufacture his “knuckleboom” hydraulic loader.

1960

1960 Norwegians Helge and Anne Stinne Ingstad find remains of a Viking village at L’Anse aux Meadows on the island of Newfoundland, Canada. That the Norsemen limited their colonization to Newfoundland is unlikely. For compelling arguments that Newfoundland is the inhospitable “Helluland” of the Vinland sagas, which therefore is not the inhospitable Baffin Island as generally assumed, and that the foresty “Markland” is Nova Scotia, and “Vinland” is further south, see Hjalmar R. Holand, Norse Discoveries & Explorations in America 982-1362, 1940. In light of these facts, the Norsemen established a settlement on the most inhospitable part of America according to their very lore; therefore, it is to be presumed that they attempted to settle on more hospitable tracts too. Besides, the conflation of L’Anse aux Meadows with Vinland is unfounded as the latter’s name comes from vines, which according to the saga the Vikings found in abundance, and: “The northern limit of grapes along the Atlantic seaboard is 47°. [L’Anse aux Meadows lies above 51°!] The vine is scarce along the coast of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Maine and New Hampshire. It is only when we reach the shores of Massachusetts that we find it growing abundantly.” (H.R. Holand, op. cit., p. 45)

1960 Schjeldahl Company, founded by Gilmore Schjeldahl, of Norwegian descent, designs and builds NASA’s first communications satellite, Echo 1.

1961 Samsonite starts to manage the Danish Lego brand in the United States (licensing agreement), until 1972, when the Danish company buys out the rights. There are three Legoland amusement parks in the U.S., and the Lego group operates 121 Lego Brand stores in the country.

1962 Victor Emanuel Beck, of Swedish descent, publishes a translation of Christopher Jacob Boström’s Philosophy of Religion. Boström’s thought has been called Sweden’s “national philosophy.” Scholar V. E. Beck is the author of, among other titles, Why I Am a Lutheran (1956).

1962 NASA begins to use Swedish company Hasselblad cameras on space flights. “There are 11 Hasselblad cameras currently sitting on the lunar surface, where only the film magazines were brought back to Earth” (Wkpd).

1962 Swedish company Tetra Pak introduces its aseptic container on the U.S. market. The iconic Tetra Brik, although commercialized in Europe since 1969, will not enter the U.S. before 1981, through its subsidiary Brik Pak.

1962 Swedish-American Curt Carlson purchases the Minneapolis Radisson Hotel and builds it into a national and international chain.

1963 Dane Thomas Dam’s “troll doll” is named Toy of the Year by the U.S. Toy Association. The same will occur a second time in 1991. Dam lost the U.S. copyrights for the doll in 1965 by case law; these rights were restored to his relatives in 2003.

1964 October 9 becomes Leif Erikson Day in the United States of America. Several states already had Leif Erikson Days, the first of which being Wisconsin since 1929, then Minnesota since 1931, later South Dakota, Illinois, Colorado, Washington, and California. “Because the exact date of Leif’s arrival to the Americas is unknown, the October 9 date was chosen in commemoration of the Restauration’s arrival to New York Harbor, carrying some of the first Norwegian immigrants to the United States.” (Wkpd; see 1925iii).

1965 The Logic of Collective Action by economist Mancur Olson, of a Norwegian migrant family, talking of “the power of small, cohesive, and well-organized groups” tends to correct James Madison’s views on the innocuity of minority factions.

1965 “Big Ole,” 8.5m-tall statue of a Viking, is built as an attraction for the New York World’s Fair. On the Viking’s shield reads “Alexandria, Birthplace of America,” in reference to the Kensington Stone of 1362 found in Minnesota. Today, Big Ole stands near the Kensington Runestone Museum in Alexandria, MN.

1966 “Swedish-American of the Year” for 1978 Robert Orville Anderson founds gasoline station brand ARCO. By the time he left, in 1986, he was “the largest individual landowner in the United States” (Wkpd).

1968 Norwegian-born Lars Onsager receives the Nobel Prize in Chemistry “for the discovery of the reciprocal relations bearing his name, which are fundamental for the thermodynamics of irreversible processes.”

1970

1970 Agronomist Norman Borlaug, of Norwegian descent, nicknamed “the father of the Green Revolution,” receives the Nobel Peace Prize for his research and worldwide initiatives on agricultural production.

1970 Computer engineer Gene Amdahl, born to Norwegian and Swedish parents, founds Amdahl Corporation in California. Amdahl had been the chief architect of the IBM System/360. Amdahl Company developed mainframe computers, such as the 470V/6 in 1975.

1970 Swedish film director Bo Widerberg’s film Joe Hill, about Swedish-American song writer and labor activist Joseph Hillström. (The film makes use of the song Joe Hill, which Joan Baez had sung at Woodstock festival in 1969.)

1971 Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition by influential political scientist Robert Dahl, of Norwegian descent.

1971 “The NASA Psychic”: Swedish-born engineer Olof Jonsson performs a long-distance telepathy experiment during the Apollo 14 mission in 1971. Four psychics on earth were chosen to receive telepathic signals from astronaut Edgar Mitchell in space.

1972 The Ecology of Language: Language Science and National Development, foundational work of ecolinguistics, by Einar Haugen, born to Norwegian immigrants. Einar Haugen is also known for his work on The Norwegian Language in America: A Study in Bilingual Behavior, 1953.

1972 A Religious History of the American People, by Swedish-American scholar Sydney E. Ahlstrom.

1972 William Rehnquist, whose paternal grandparents immigrated from Sweden, becomes Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. He became the Court’s Chief Justice in 1986, a position he held until his death in 2005.

1972 Swante M. Swenson (1816-1896), the first Swede in Texas (1850) and founder of the SMS Ranches or Swenson Ranches, one of the largest landowners in Texas, is inducted in the Hall of Great Westerners of the National Cowboy and Western Heritage Museum in Oklahoma City.

1973 Establishment of the Laestadian Lutheran Church (LLC) under the name Association of American Laestadian Congregations (current name dates back from 1994), separating from other Laestadian congregations (see 1872ii).

1974 TSR releases roleplaying game Dungeons & Dragons by Gary Gygax and Minnesotan Dave Arneson. While Gygax is a name from the German-speaking part of Switzerland, Arneson is a Scandinavian name. “Like many Minnesotans, Dave Arneson and several of his players were of Scandinavian ancestry” (blackmoormystara.blogspot.com). D&D was the development of Arneson’s 1971 Blackmoor, the first fantasy roleplaying game.

1975 Flight to America: The Social Background of 300,000 Danish Emigrants, abridged and translated version of Danish historian Kristian Hvidt’s 1971 doctoral thesis, a pioneering application of computerized data analysis to historical studies.

1975 Painter Arnold Friberg, born to a Swedish father and a Norwegian mother, exhibits his painting The Prayer at Valley Forge (depicting George Washington). A member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, Friberg also painted scenes from the Book of Mormon in neoclassical style.

1976 Kierkegaard scholars Howard and Edna Hong donate their research collection to St. Olaf College–founding moment of the Hong Kierkegaard Library.

1976 Rocky, by film director John G. Avildsen, of Norwegian and Danish descent, written by Sylvester Stallone.

1978 Ibsen scholar Rolf Fjelde, of Norwegian ancestry, is elected founding president of the Ibsen Society of America.

1978 Ward Christensen, of Norwegian descent, creates with Randy Suess the Computerized Bulletin Board System (CBBS), the first dial-up BBS brought online.

1980

1980 Foundation of the Nordic Heritage Museum, now National Nordic Museum, in Seattle, WA.

1981 Chaosium releases Call of Cthulhu, the roleplaying game based on Howard P. Lovecraft’s universe, by Sandy Petersen, born Carl Sanford Joslyn Petersen (who posted on X “I’m of Danish descent”).

1984 Den lange plovfure (The long plough furrow), published in Denmark, by Danish-American writer Enok Mortensen (1902-1984) “is the last novel by an immigrant who participated in the major wave of Danish immigration” (Nielsen & Petersen). Mortensen had immigrated to U.S. in 1919.

1984 Walter Mondale, whose surname comes from Mundal, a valley and town in the Fjærland region of Norway, is the Democratic Party’s nominee against incumbent President Donald Reagan. One wag joked about his “Norwegian charisma,” and this racist stereotyping is still quoted by scholars and journalists as a witty oxymoron.

1988 Reaganomics by Finnish-American economic advisor of President Ronald Reagan, William A. Niskanen. Niskanen chaired the Cato Institute, a libertarian think-tank, from 1985 to 2008.

1990

1991 Swedish-born George Kellgren, after designing firearms for Swedish (Husqvarna) and U.S. companies, founds Kel-Tec CNC Industries Inc., or KelTec, a firearms manufacturing company, in Florida. The company follows in the footsteps of older U.S. firearms manufacturers such as Iver Johnson & Co. founded by Norwegian-born I. Johnson in 1883, and Mossberg founded by Swedish-born Oscar Frederick Mossberg in 1919.

1992 Danish-born painter Olaf Wieghorst (†1988) is inducted in the Hall of Great Westerners of the National Cowboy and Western Heritage Museum in Oklahoma City.

1994 In Plain Sight: Old World Records in Ancient America, by Gloria Farley, in which she claims the Heavener Runestone in Oklahoma is a genuine runic artefact of Norse origin. According to her, the stone dates back to 600-900 AD, that is, before the events described in the Vinland sagas. Most researchers think the stone was made by Scandinavian immigrants in the nineteenth century.

1994 Opening of the Danish Immigrant Museum in Danish Village (enclave of Danish ethnicity) Elk Horn, Iowa. In 2013 the museum was renamed Museum of Danish America. It has a Genealogy Center.

1995 There is also a Danish Heritage Museum in Danevang, Texas. Danevang was proclaimed Danish Capital of Texas by the state legislature in 1995.

1995 Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, by computer scientists Peter Norvig, born of a Danish father, and Stuart J. Russell: the most popular textbook in the field to this day.

.

A methodological note on the present work

Obvious Scandinavian names hint at Scandinavian origins via the paternal line; however, we are not including people without evidence of Scandinavian provenance other than the name.

This being said, the closer the date of birth stands to our days, the scantier tend to become the data on immigrant background, as far as the great waves of European immigration to America are concerned. This is because, even if the name is or sounds Scandinavian, the person born in recent years will likely tend to have several backgrounds (the likelihood of which will depend on an endogamy rate inside the category of “Scandinavian Americans,” which social scientists and/or historians may assess). In certain cases, even the person’s saying he or she is of Scandinavian background will only be a partial truth, whether it be because this person’s background is mostly Scandinavian but not entirely, or, even, is minimally Scandinavian but the person wishes to stress this line of inheritance rather than others. To what extent each of such individual cases should be included in a work on “Scandinavian Americans,” is a question that remains open.

For us here, we are content with stopping our chronology at the 1990s decade. This is not, however, a statement that the Scandinavian American category has become irrelevant in the course of the “melting pot” process (along with several other historical factors such as the political vilification of “hyphenated Americans” after WWI); only that, absent precise knowledge on the endogamy rate alluded to above among Americans of Scandinavian origin, the factors we rely on for classifying individuals may not be strong indicators after some point, as the great wave of immigration from Scandinavian countries becomes a remoter event with the passing of time.

.

The different entries for each year are not ranked according to chronological order.